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Written by: Therapy Near Me Editorial Team Clinically reviewed by: qualified members of the Therapy Near Me clinical team Last updated: 08/08/2025 This article is intended as general information only and does not replace personalised medical or mental health advice. Learn more about our Editorial Policy. Playing the victim can be defined as adopting a mindset or behaviour where an individual positions themselves as consistently wronged or oppressed, even in situations where they hold some degree of agency or responsibility. This phenomenon can occur in personal, professional, or social contexts, and it can have detrimental effects on both the individual and the people around them. In psychological terms, it is often linked to maladaptive coping mechanisms and patterns of thinking that may perpetuate a cycle of blame, helplessness, and avoidance of accountability. Keywords: victim mentality, playing the victim, psychological impact of victimhood, breaking free from victim mindset Understanding Victim Mentality Victim mentality involves a pervasive sense of helplessness, constant blaming of others, and the belief that one’s life circumstances are a result of external forces beyond their control. This mindset may stem from past trauma or adverse experiences, but it becomes problematic when it interferes with personal growth and relationships. Individuals with a victim mentality often adopt cognitive distortions, such as “catastrophising” (expecting the worst outcomes) or “personalisation” (believing that negative events are targeted specifically at them) (Beck, 1976). The desire to “play the victim” can be a defence mechanism, shielding individuals from the discomfort of taking responsibility for their actions or addressing their problems directly. However, it can create a pattern of passive behaviour, fostering negative outcomes for both the individual and their relationships. Psychological Impacts of Victimhood Learned Helplessness: A critical psychological concept associated with victim mentality is learned helplessness, which occurs when individuals believe they have no control over their environment or the outcomes of their actions. This leads to a passive resignation, even when they do have the power to change their situation (Seligman, 1972). This mindset can exacerbate depression, anxiety, and other mental health conditions by reinforcing feelings of powerlessness. Impact on Relationships: Playing the victim can strain personal relationships, as it can lead to manipulative behaviours, such as guilt-tripping or emotional blackmail. The person may expect others to rescue them or cater to their needs, which can lead to frustration and resentment in those around them (McCullough et al., 2003). Cognitive Distortions: Cognitive distortions are faulty or irrational ways of thinking that contribute to a victim mentality. These distortions may include overgeneralisation (believing that one negative event reflects a universal pattern), emotional reasoning (equating emotions with reality), and all-or-nothing thinking (seeing situations in black-and-white terms). Such distortions can perpetuate feelings of injustice and increase feelings of isolation (Beck, 1976). Why Do People Play the Victim? Avoidance of Responsibility: One of the primary reasons people adopt a victim mentality is to avoid taking responsibility for their actions or circumstances. By attributing their problems to external factors, they can avoid confronting uncomfortable truths about themselves or their role in negative situations (Karpman, 1968). This avoidance can offer short-term relief from guilt or shame but can be detrimental to long-term personal growth. Attention and Sympathy: Victimhood can attract attention and sympathy from others, which may temporarily validate the individual’s feelings. However, this can create a dependency on external validation, reinforcing the need to remain in a victim role to receive care or concern. This can become manipulative, leading to emotional exhaustion for those around them. Past Trauma and Conditioning: People who have experienced trauma, particularly in childhood, may adopt a victim mentality as a way to cope with unresolved pain. Repeated experiences of being victimised may condition them to see themselves as powerless, even in situations where they have more control (Janoff-Bulman, 1992). While trauma is a valid and significant factor, it is essential to address it through therapy or self-reflection rather than allowing it to perpetuate a victim role. Societal Impacts of Victim Culture Victimhood is not just an individual problem; it can also be seen on a broader societal level, where certain groups or individuals position themselves as consistently wronged to garner sympathy, validation, or avoid accountability. This “victim culture” can lead to the erosion of personal responsibility and foster division between groups. Entitlement and Grievance Narratives: Some individuals or groups may use their perceived victimhood to justify feelings of entitlement or resentment toward others. This can manifest in the form of grievance narratives, where individuals focus on their perceived injustices to gain power or influence in social or political contexts (Campbell & Manning, 2014). Moral Licensing: Playing the victim can also create a phenomenon known as moral licensing, where individuals feel justified in behaving in negative ways because they believe they have been wronged (Merritt et al., 2010). For example, a person who sees themselves as a victim may feel entitled to act aggressively, manipulate others, or shirk responsibilities because they believe their suffering warrants special treatment. How to Break Free from Victim Mentality Breaking free from the victim mindset requires self-awareness, personal accountability, and a willingness to take action to change one’s circumstances. Here are some evidence-based approaches: Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT): CBT is one of the most effective treatments for individuals with a victim mentality. It helps individuals identify and challenge cognitive distortions, replace negative thought patterns, and develop healthier coping mechanisms (Beck, 1976). Practicing Gratitude: Shifting focus from what’s wrong to what’s going well can help break the cycle of victimhood. Gratitude practices, such as journaling or mindfulness, have been shown to improve mental health and increase feelings of agency and positivity (Emmons & McCullough, 2003). Taking Responsibility: Recognising one’s role in situations and taking responsibility for actions is crucial. This doesn’t mean denying past trauma or experiences of being wronged, but rather reclaiming the power to affect one’s present and future. Personal empowerment stems from acknowledging what can be controlled and actively working towards solutions (Seligman, 1972). Seeking Professional Help: For individuals who have experienced significant trauma or difficulty

Written by: Therapy Near Me Editorial Team Clinically reviewed by: qualified members of the Therapy Near Me clinical team Last updated: 14/07/2025 This article is intended as general information only and does not replace personalised medical or mental health advice. Learn more about our Editorial Policy. The National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) has embraced telehealth as a way to provide participants with access to psychological services. Through virtual psychology sessions, NDIS participants can receive essential mental health support from the comfort of their own home. This article explores how telehealth works, its benefits, and how NDIS participants can use it to improve their emotional well-being. Keywords: NDIS telehealth services, Virtual psychology sessions NDIS, Accessing NDIS psychologists via telehealth, Telehealth for mental health support, NDIS mental health telehealth, Telehealth vs in-person therapy NDIS, Online therapy for NDIS participants, Telehealth tools for NDIS, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) telehealth, Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT) telehealth Can I Access NDIS Psychologists via Telehealth? Yes, you can access NDIS psychologists via telehealth. The NDIS supports virtual psychology sessions, which allows participants to receive mental health services remotely. Telehealth is particularly useful for individuals living in rural areas, those with mobility issues, or those seeking greater flexibility and convenience. Telehealth services are typically covered under the Improved Daily Living category of NDIS plans, ensuring access to essential psychological support like Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT), and more. Is Telehealth Available for all NDIS Participants? Yes, telehealth is available for all NDIS participants. Whether your NDIS plan is agency-managed, plan-managed, or self-managed, you can access psychology services through telehealth. This option is especially beneficial for individuals with limited mobility, those living in remote areas, or participants seeking flexible scheduling for their therapy sessions. However, it is essential to ensure that telehealth services align with your NDIS plan goals and are included in the funding under the Improved Daily Living category. How Does Telehealth Work for NDIS Participants? Telehealth refers to the delivery of health services through digital platforms such as video conferencing or phone calls. For NDIS participants, this means that they can access their psychologists remotely, without the need for in-person appointments. Virtual therapy is particularly useful for individuals living in regional or remote areas or those with mobility challenges. Sessions are conducted in much the same way as face-to-face therapy, with the psychologist and participant interacting in real time. This allows for continuity of care, especially during times when in-person visits may not be possible, such as during the COVID-19 pandemic. What Tools Do I Need for Telehealth Sessions? For telehealth sessions, you will need: A reliable device: This could be a computer, tablet, or smartphone with video and audio capabilities. Stable internet connection: Ensure that your internet is fast enough to handle video calls without interruptions. Video conferencing platform: Most providers use platforms like Zoom, Microsoft Teams, or Skype. A quiet, private space: To maintain confidentiality and focus during the session. Headphones (optional): To enhance sound quality and privacy. These tools will ensure smooth and effective telehealth consultations. Benefits of Telehealth for NDIS Participants There are several key benefits of using telehealth for psychological services within the NDIS framework: Accessibility: Telehealth breaks down barriers to accessing mental health support, particularly for those in remote areas or with limited transport options. Flexibility: Participants can schedule appointments more easily, making it convenient to fit therapy sessions into daily life. Comfort and Privacy: Engaging in therapy from home can make some individuals feel more comfortable, allowing them to open up more freely. Reduced Travel Costs: Telehealth eliminates the need for travel, saving time and money, which is especially important for participants who may need frequent sessions. Types of Psychological Services Available via Telehealth NDIS participants can access a range of psychological services via telehealth, including: Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT): This well-established therapy focuses on changing negative thought patterns that contribute to emotional distress. Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT): Used for emotional regulation, this therapy can help individuals manage their feelings and cope with stress. Counselling: General counselling is available to support emotional well-being and personal growth. Behavioural Interventions: For participants with autism or intellectual disabilities, telehealth can offer tailored support and guidance for managing behaviours. How to Access Telehealth Services with NDIS NDIS participants can access telehealth services by choosing providers who offer virtual psychology options. Participants with self-managed or plan-managed NDIS funds can select from a wide range of registered and non-registered providers. Agency-managed participants may need to ensure that the psychologist is NDIS-registered. Before starting telehealth therapy, it’s important to ensure that the provider’s services are aligned with the participant’s NDIS goals. The NDIS typically covers telehealth under the Improved Daily Living category, which includes therapeutic support to enhance participants’ mental health and emotional regulation. Is Telehealth Effective for Mental Health? Research supports the effectiveness of telehealth in delivering mental health services. A study by Batastini et al. (2021) found that telepsychology can be as effective as in-person therapy for managing depression, anxiety, and other mental health conditions. In particular, cognitive-behavioural therapy delivered via telehealth has been shown to have similar outcomes compared to traditional therapy (Carlbring et al., 2018). In addition, participants often report greater satisfaction with the flexibility and convenience that telehealth provides, helping them remain engaged in their treatment plans. Overcoming Challenges of Telehealth While telehealth offers many advantages, there are some challenges that need to be addressed: Technology Barriers: Access to reliable internet and appropriate devices is crucial. Participants should ensure they have a quiet and private space for sessions. Comfort with Technology: Some individuals may feel uncomfortable using technology or require assistance setting up platforms such as Zoom or Skype. Despite these challenges, the benefits of telehealth often outweigh the drawbacks, especially for individuals who might otherwise struggle to access regular mental health support. Conclusion Telehealth provides a valuable way for NDIS participants to access psychological services, offering convenience, accessibility, and continuity of care. Whether through Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, Dialectical Behaviour Therapy, or general counselling, virtual psychology sessions

Written by: Therapy Near Me Editorial Team Clinically reviewed by: qualified members of the Therapy Near Me clinical team Last updated: 06/09/2025 This article is intended as general information only and does not replace personalised medical or mental health advice. Learn more about our Editorial Policy. Schizophrenia, often misunderstood and misrepresented, is a chronic and severe mental health disorder that affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves. This article aims to demystify schizophrenia, providing a clear understanding of its symptoms, causes, and treatment options, and addressing common misconceptions. What is Schizophrenia? Definition: Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by distortions in thinking, perception, emotions, language, sense of self, and behavior. It is not a split personality or multiple personality disorder, as often mistakenly portrayed. Symptoms: The symptoms of schizophrenia are categorized into three main types: Positive Symptoms: These include hallucinations (seeing or hearing things that aren’t there), delusions (false beliefs), thought disorders, and movement disorders. Negative Symptoms: These refer to disruptions to normal emotions and behaviors, such as reduced expression of emotions, reduced feelings of pleasure in everyday life, difficulty beginning and sustaining activities, and reduced speaking. Cognitive Symptoms: These involve problems with attention, certain types of memory, and executive functions, which are necessary for planning and organizing. Causes and Risk Factors Genetics: While the exact cause of schizophrenia is unknown, genetics plays a significant role. Having a family history of schizophrenia increases the risk. Brain Chemistry and Structure: Imbalances in the brain’s neurotransmitters, dopamine and glutamate, may contribute to schizophrenia. Brain structure abnormalities have also been observed in people with the disorder. Environmental Factors: Factors like prenatal exposure to viruses, malnutrition before birth, problems during birth, and psychosocial factors may contribute to the development of schizophrenia. Treatment and Management Medication: Antipsychotic medications are the cornerstone of schizophrenia treatment. They can reduce the severity of symptoms and reduce the chances of relapsing. Psychosocial Treatments: These are essential when medications have reduced the most severe symptoms. Therapies like cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) can help patients deal with the everyday challenges of the disorder, such as communication, work, forming and keeping relationships, and self-care. Rehabilitation: It focuses on social skills and job training to help people with schizophrenia function more effectively and independently. Family Education and Support: Educating family members about schizophrenia and providing strategies to support their loved one can improve outcomes. Addressing Misconceptions Violence and Danger: People with schizophrenia are often unfairly and inaccurately portrayed as violent. Most people with schizophrenia are not violent, and when violence does occur, it is typically a result of co-occurring substance abuse. Prognosis: Schizophrenia is often thought to be an entirely disabling condition. However, with treatment, many people lead fulfilling, productive lives. The key is early and continuous treatment. Conclusion Understanding schizophrenia is crucial for reducing stigma and improving the lives of those affected by it. This complex disorder demands a comprehensive treatment approach, combining medication, therapy, and support. With the right support and treatment, individuals with schizophrenia can lead meaningful and satisfying lives. Take a quick self assessment How to get in touch If you or your patient/NDIS clients need immediate mental healthcare assistance, feel free to get in contact with us on 1800 NEAR ME – admin@therapynearme.com.au.

Written by: Therapy Near Me Editorial Team Clinically reviewed by: qualified members of the Therapy Near Me clinical team Last updated: 21/12/2025 This article is intended as general information only and does not replace personalised medical or mental health advice. Learn more about our Editorial Policy. Fentanyl, a potent synthetic opioid, has garnered attention for its devastating role in the opioid epidemic. Initially developed for pain management, particularly in cancer patients, fentanyl is 50 to 100 times more potent than morphine (Schifano et al., 2019). While its physical effects, including respiratory depression and overdose risk, are well-documented, the mental health consequences of fentanyl use and misuse are equally severe but less frequently discussed. This article explores the psychological impact of fentanyl, focusing on how its use can exacerbate or trigger mental health disorders. Keywords: Fentanyl addiction treatment, Reversing fentanyl addiction, Medication-assisted treatment for fentanyl, Fentanyl withdrawal management, Opioid addiction recovery, Fentanyl overdose treatment, Long-term recovery from fentanyl 1. Depression and Fentanyl Use Long-term opioid use, including fentanyl, is strongly associated with the onset and worsening of depressive disorders. Fentanyl’s powerful euphoric effects can lead to a cycle of emotional dependence, as users rely on the drug to manage emotional pain, leading to a blunted ability to experience pleasure or normal emotions when not using (Volkow et al., 2018). This phenomenon, known as opioid-induced anhedonia, can significantly increase the risk of developing major depressive episodes. Individuals who misuse fentanyl may also experience mood swings, irritability, and feelings of worthlessness or guilt, further contributing to the cycle of addiction and depression (Schifano et al., 2019). The comorbid nature of substance abuse and depression makes treatment particularly challenging, as both conditions often need to be addressed simultaneously. 2. Anxiety Disorders and Fentanyl Anxiety disorders are another common mental health issue exacerbated by fentanyl use. Many individuals use opioids to self-medicate for anxiety, but over time, fentanyl can heighten feelings of restlessness, panic, and paranoia. Prolonged use often leads to changes in brain chemistry that make it more difficult for the individual to manage stress without the drug, creating a dependency cycle. The withdrawal symptoms associated with fentanyl, which can include severe anxiety, agitation, and panic attacks, contribute to the difficulty of overcoming addiction. For some users, the fear of experiencing withdrawal can perpetuate ongoing use, even when they want to quit (Kosten & George, 2002). 3. Psychosis and Hallucinations Fentanyl use, particularly when mixed with other substances or taken in large amounts, has been linked to episodes of psychosis and hallucinations. Some users report seeing or hearing things that aren’t there, feeling detached from reality, or experiencing delusions. While these symptoms are more commonly associated with stimulant use, the powerful nature of fentanyl and its effects on the brain’s reward and pleasure centres can lead to similar experiences (Rudd et al., 2016). Opioid-induced psychosis is particularly dangerous because it can impair judgment and increase the likelihood of risky behaviour, such as further substance abuse or self-harm. 4. Cognitive Impairment Chronic fentanyl use can result in cognitive deficits, including problems with memory, attention, and decision-making. Opioids affect the brain’s prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for executive functioning, leading to impaired impulse control and increased risk-taking behaviours (Schifano et al., 2019). Over time, individuals using fentanyl may struggle to complete everyday tasks or make sound decisions, further compounding the social and personal consequences of addiction. Cognitive impairment also poses a significant barrier to treatment, as it makes it harder for individuals to engage in psychotherapy or rehabilitation programs. 5. Suicidal Ideation and Fentanyl The opioid epidemic has been linked to an increase in suicide rates, particularly among individuals with opioid use disorder (OUD). Fentanyl’s depressive effects on the central nervous system, combined with its tendency to exacerbate pre-existing mental health issues, can increase feelings of hopelessness and despair. Research has shown that individuals with OUD are at a significantly higher risk of suicidal ideation and suicide attempts, especially if they also suffer from untreated depression or anxiety (Pfefferbaum et al., 2020). Fentanyl’s role in suicide is not limited to overdose deaths, as many suicides among opioid users are intentional, driven by overwhelming feelings of hopelessness and emotional pain. 6. Impact on Co-occurring Disorders Fentanyl use often co-occurs with other substance use disorders, such as alcohol or benzodiazepine abuse, further complicating mental health outcomes. Co-occurring disorders (often referred to as dual diagnoses) present unique challenges in treatment, as individuals may experience a worsening of both substance use and mental health symptoms when only one condition is addressed. For example, individuals with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia who use fentanyl may experience more frequent mood swings, psychotic episodes, and suicidal thoughts, making it difficult to stabilise either condition without comprehensive treatment (Volkow et al., 2018). Comparisons to Other Opioids Fentanyl is one of the most potent opioids available and stands out in comparison to other opioids due to its extreme potency, rapid onset, and significant risk for misuse and overdose. Here’s a detailed comparison of fentanyl with other commonly used opioids such as morphine, heroin, and oxycodone: 1. Potency Fentanyl is 50 to 100 times more potent than morphine and approximately 50 times more potent than heroin (Stanley, 2014). This means that very small doses of fentanyl can produce effects similar to much larger doses of other opioids. Its high potency is both a reason for its medical use in managing severe pain and a major contributor to its risk of overdose when misused. Morphine: Often considered the gold standard for opioid pain relief, morphine is much less potent than fentanyl. It is commonly used in both acute and chronic pain settings but is far less likely to cause overdose in such small amounts compared to fentanyl. Heroin: Heroin is an illicit opioid that is chemically similar to morphine. While it is potent, fentanyl is much stronger, which has led to a surge in overdose deaths when fentanyl is laced with or substituted for heroin. Oxycodone: A widely prescribed opioid, oxycodone is also less potent than fentanyl.

Body image refers to an individual’s perceptions, thoughts, and feelings about their physical appearance. It encompasses how people view their own body, the importance they place on physical appearance, and how they believe others perceive them. In today’s media-driven world, body image has become a critical issue, influencing mental health, self-esteem, and overall well-being. This article delves into the concept of body image, its impact on mental health, and ways to promote a healthy body image. Keywords: Body shaming effects, Long-term effects of body shaming, Body image and mental health, Psychological impact of body shaming, Body dissatisfaction and self-esteem, Social isolation and body image, Body shaming and eating disorders, Weight stigma and discrimination What Is Body Image? Body image is multidimensional, comprising both perceptual and attitudinal components (Cash, 2004). It includes: Perceptual Body Image: How you perceive your body size, shape, and appearance. This perception may or may not be accurate. Attitudinal Body Image: How you feel about your body, including your thoughts about its shape, size, and attractiveness. Negative body image, often termed body dissatisfaction, occurs when there is a significant gap between how a person perceives their body and their ideal body image, often influenced by societal beauty standards (Grabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008). Impact of Media on Body Image The media plays a significant role in shaping perceptions of body image, particularly through the promotion of narrow beauty ideals. Studies have shown that frequent exposure to unrealistic body standards in social media, television, and advertising can lead to body dissatisfaction, especially among women and adolescents (Tiggemann & Slater, 2014). The portrayal of thin, fit, or surgically-enhanced bodies as the ideal standard can pressure individuals to conform to these unrealistic standards, often resulting in negative mental health outcomes. Social comparison theory suggests that people compare themselves to others, often leading to dissatisfaction if they perceive themselves as falling short (Festinger, 1954). This can trigger a cycle of self-criticism, lowered self-esteem, and increased likelihood of developing eating disorders (Levine & Murnen, 2009). Psychological Effects of Negative Body Image Negative body image is associated with a range of mental health issues, including: Anxiety and Depression: Research has consistently shown a link between body dissatisfaction and increased symptoms of anxiety and depression (Brechan & Kvalem, 2015). Individuals who are dissatisfied with their appearance are more likely to experience feelings of worthlessness, sadness, and hopelessness. Eating Disorders: Body dissatisfaction is a significant risk factor for the development of eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder. The pursuit of an unrealistic body ideal can lead to unhealthy behaviours such as restrictive eating, purging, or excessive exercise (Stice & Shaw, 2002). Low Self-Esteem: Negative body image often leads to low self-esteem, which can affect other areas of life, such as relationships, work, and social interactions. People with low self-esteem may avoid social situations due to fear of judgment or criticism regarding their appearance (Cash, 2004). Gender and Body Image While body image concerns are often associated with women, research shows that men are increasingly affected as well. Societal pressures for men to achieve a muscular physique, known as the “ideal male body,” have led to muscle dysmorphia, a condition where individuals obsess over the belief that their muscles are not large enough (Olivardia, 2007). Additionally, men are more likely to use performance-enhancing drugs, such as steroids, in pursuit of the muscular ideal, which can lead to health risks, including liver damage, heart problems, and mental health issues (Grieve, 2007). The Role of Social Media in Body Image Issues Social media plays a significant role in shaping body image issues, particularly among adolescents and young adults. The constant exposure to curated and often unrealistic images can negatively impact how individuals perceive their own bodies, leading to body dissatisfaction, anxiety, and even the development of eating disorders. Here’s how social media influences body image: 1. Social Comparison One of the primary ways social media impacts body image is through social comparison. Platforms like Instagram, TikTok, and Facebook allow users to compare themselves with influencers, celebrities, and even peers. These comparisons are often made against highly curated and edited content, which presents unrealistic beauty standards. Research has shown that upward social comparisons (comparing oneself to people perceived as more attractive or successful) lead to body dissatisfaction and negative self-perception (Fardouly et al., 2015). 2. Editing and Filters The prevalence of photo editing apps and filters allows users to enhance their appearance, making it difficult to differentiate between real and digitally altered images. This can contribute to an unrealistic standard of beauty, where flawless skin, slim bodies, and exaggerated features become the norm. This widespread use of editing tools has been linked to lower body satisfaction, particularly among young women (Tiggemann & Slater, 2014). 3. Influencers and Fitspiration Culture The rise of fitness influencers and “fitspiration” (fitness inspiration) content has also been a double-edged sword. While some content encourages healthy living, much of it promotes unattainable body ideals, leading followers to adopt extreme dieting, excessive exercise, or even develop eating disorders to achieve these goals (Boepple et al., 2016). The pressure to conform to these ideals can cause feelings of inadequacy when individuals are unable to achieve the same results. 4. Likes and Validation Social media platforms rely on a system of likes, comments, and followers as forms of social validation. This can create a toxic environment where individuals, especially teenagers, tie their self-worth to their online popularity. The desire for positive reinforcement may lead users to engage in risky behaviours, such as extreme dieting, to fit into beauty standards that are praised by the online community (Stapleton et al., 2017). 5. Body Positivity Movements On a positive note, social media has also been instrumental in promoting body positivity and diversity. Movements like #BodyPositivity and #EffYourBeautyStandards have encouraged users to embrace all body shapes, sizes, and appearances. These movements aim to counter the negative impact of social comparison by promoting self-love and acceptance. Studies suggest that exposure to body-positive content can improve body

Written by: Therapy Near Me Editorial Team Clinically reviewed by: qualified members of the Therapy Near Me clinical team Last updated: 22/08/2025 This article is intended as general information only and does not replace personalised medical or mental health advice. Learn more about our Editorial Policy. Cannibalism, the act of consuming human flesh, has been a topic of fascination and horror throughout history. While often considered in cultural or survival contexts, the psychology behind cannibalistic behaviour is complex and multifaceted. In modern times, instances of cannibalism are rare and typically linked to severe mental health disorders or extreme circumstances. Keywords: Cannibalism and mental health, Mental disorders associated with cannibalism, Schizophrenia and cannibalism, Psychosis and extreme behaviours, Antisocial Personality Disorder and cannibalism, Psychopathy and cannibalistic tendencies, Paraphilic disorders and cannibalism, Psychological causes of cannibalism Cultural and Historical Context of Cannibalism Historically, cannibalism has been practiced in various cultures, often linked to rituals, warfare, or survival. Some societies viewed cannibalism as a way to gain power or spiritual strength from enemies, while others engaged in it as part of funerary rites. For example, endocannibalism—the consumption of deceased community members—was practiced by the Fore people of Papua New Guinea. However, these cultural practices are distinct from pathological cases of cannibalism in modern society, where the act is considered abnormal and is often associated with deviant behaviour. Psychological Motivations in Modern Cannibalism In modern cases, cannibalism is often tied to severe psychopathology. The most notorious cases of cannibalism, such as those involving serial killers like Jeffrey Dahmer, are linked to extreme mental disorders. Dahmer, who admitted to consuming parts of his victims, was diagnosed with borderline personality disorder, schizotypal personality disorder, and psychotic disorders. Cannibalistic behaviour in such cases is often driven by desires for control, domination, and sometimes sexual gratification. It is viewed as an extreme manifestation of underlying antisocial personality disorder (APA, 2013). Survival Cannibalism Another form of cannibalism, often termed survival cannibalism, occurs in extreme situations where food is scarce, and individuals resort to cannibalism as a last means of survival. One of the most well-known instances is the Donner Party in 1846, where a group of American pioneers resorted to cannibalism to survive harsh winter conditions. Survival cannibalism differs significantly from the pathological form, as it arises from necessity rather than psychological deviance (Lindenbaum, 2004). Cannibalism and Mental Disorders Cannibalism is often linked to several severe mental disorders. These include: Schizophrenia: Some individuals with schizophrenia experience delusions or hallucinations that can drive extreme behaviours like cannibalism. Psychosis: Severe psychotic episodes can disconnect individuals from reality, leading to violent actions, including cannibalism. Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD): Individuals with ASPD, particularly those with psychopathic traits, may engage in cannibalism as part of extreme violence or desire for control. Paraphilic Disorders: Cannibalism may sometimes be associated with sexual arousal linked to violence or unconventional behaviour. In such cases, the behaviours are typically driven by deep-rooted psychological disturbances and impaired emotional regulation.(Hickey, 2015). Neurological and Biological Factors There may also be a neurological basis for cannibalism. Research into the brain’s reward system suggests that individuals with psychopathic tendencies or impulse control disorders may have impaired function in the prefrontal cortex, the area of the brain responsible for decision-making and moral judgement. Additionally, abnormalities in the amygdala, which regulates emotions like fear and aggression, could contribute to extreme behaviours, including cannibalism (Blair, 2007). Psychological Profiles of Famous Cannibals The psychological profiles of famous cannibals often reveal a complex interplay of mental health disorders, traumatic backgrounds, and distorted belief systems. Understanding these profiles can shed light on why some individuals engage in such extreme acts. 1. Jeffrey Dahmer (1960-1994) Jeffrey Dahmer, also known as the Milwaukee Cannibal, is one of the most infamous cases of modern cannibalism. Dahmer murdered 17 young men between 1978 and 1991, and his crimes included not only murder and cannibalism but also necrophilia and dismemberment (Silva, Ferrari, & Leong, 2002). Psychological Analysis: Dahmer was diagnosed with multiple psychiatric disorders, including borderline personality disorder, schizotypal personality disorder, and psychotic disorder. His cannibalistic acts were partly motivated by his desire to feel a sense of possession and control over his victims. Dahmer expressed a need to keep his victims with him forever, which he attempted to achieve through cannibalism and creating “zombies” by drilling holes into their skulls and injecting them with acid (Schwartz, 1992). 2. Albert Fish (1870-1936) Albert Fish, also known as the “Brooklyn Vampire,” was an American serial killer and cannibal active in the early 20th century. He was convicted of murdering and cannibalising young children, and he claimed to have committed these acts under the command of God. Psychological Analysis: Fish exhibited symptoms of severe mental illness, including schizophrenia and sadomasochism. He experienced auditory hallucinations and believed that God was instructing him to commit his crimes. Fish’s cannibalistic acts were part of his broader pattern of sexually sadistic behaviour, which included self-mutilation and the infliction of extreme pain on others (Resnick, 2007). 3. Issei Sagawa (1949-Present) Issei Sagawa, a Japanese student, murdered and cannibalised a Dutch woman, Renée Hartevelt, in Paris in 1981. Sagawa was declared legally insane and was deported to Japan, where he has lived freely since his release from a psychiatric hospital. Psychological Analysis: Sagawa’s cannibalism was motivated by a lifelong obsession with cannibalistic fantasies and the desire to “possess” his victim completely. He did not exhibit the typical characteristics of a violent offender and was described as polite and intelligent. Sagawa has publicly stated that his crime was driven by an uncontrollable desire, which he could not resist despite understanding its moral implications (Blanco, 2017). Treatment and Rehabilitation Given the extreme nature of cannibalistic behaviour, treatment and rehabilitation are challenging. Individuals who engage in cannibalism often have severe psychiatric disorders that require comprehensive and long-term mental health treatment. Therapeutic approaches may include: Psychotherapy: Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) and other forms of psychotherapy can help individuals understand and manage their violent impulses and distorted thoughts. Medication: Antipsychotic medications can be effective for those with psychotic disorders,

Written by: Therapy Near Me Editorial Team Clinically reviewed by: qualified members of the Therapy Near Me clinical team Last updated: 09/10/2025 This article is intended as general information only and does not replace personalised medical or mental health advice. Learn more about our Editorial Policy. Muscle dysmorphia (MD), also known as bigorexia, is a psychological disorder characterised by an obsessive preoccupation with one’s muscle size and body composition. Individuals suffering from muscle dysmorphia often believe that their muscles are too small or underdeveloped, despite having well-developed physiques or even excessive muscle mass. This condition is considered a type of body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), which focuses on perceived physical flaws (Murray et al., 2012). Keywords: Muscle dysmorphia vs body dysmorphia, Muscle dysmorphia symptoms, Body dysmorphic disorder comparison, Differences between muscle and body dysmorphia, Body image disorders, Muscle dysmorphia in men, Body dysmorphia focus on flaws, Compulsive behaviours muscle dysmorphia, Body dysmorphia and cosmetic surgery Characteristics of Muscle Dysmorphia Muscle dysmorphia primarily affects men, although some women also experience it. People with this condition are typically preoccupied with achieving an ideal muscular body, often spending excessive amounts of time and energy on weight training, strict diets, and sometimes the use of performance-enhancing drugs like anabolic steroids (Olivardia, 2001). Key characteristics include: Body Dissatisfaction: Despite significant muscle development, individuals with muscle dysmorphia view their bodies as inadequate or too small. They may constantly check their appearance in mirrors, compare themselves to others, or seek reassurance about their size. Excessive Exercise: People with muscle dysmorphia often engage in intense and compulsive weightlifting routines, sometimes overtraining to the point of injury (Grieve, 2007). The disorder may also lead them to avoid social activities or professional commitments that interfere with their gym routine. Dietary Restrictions: Adhering to rigid dietary regimes, individuals with muscle dysmorphia may consume high-protein diets or supplements to build muscle, while avoiding foods that they believe could hinder muscle growth. Distress and Impairment: The psychological distress caused by muscle dysmorphia can lead to social isolation, depression, and anxiety. Many individuals with this disorder may avoid situations where their body could be exposed, such as swimming pools or beaches, for fear of being judged for their perceived inadequacies (Olivardia et al., 2000). Muscle Dysmorphia and the Media The rise of muscle dysmorphia has been linked to societal pressures and media portrayals of the ideal male body, particularly in the fitness and bodybuilding industries. Men are often exposed to images of highly muscular and lean physiques through advertisements, movies, social media, and fitness magazines. This media-driven ideal body type can lead to upward social comparison, where individuals feel that they fall short of the standards they see in the media (Leone et al., 2005). Social media platforms, in particular, have exacerbated these comparisons by creating spaces where users frequently share images of their fitness routines and body transformations. This often encourages excessive scrutiny of one’s own body and fosters a sense of inadequacy, pushing individuals toward unhealthy habits to attain the “ideal” muscular build (Fardouly et al., 2015). The Role of Steroids and Supplement Use Muscle dysmorphia is often associated with the use of anabolic steroids and other performance-enhancing substances. Many individuals with the disorder turn to these substances in an attempt to achieve faster muscle growth or to maintain their physique, despite the potential health risks involved. Research indicates that men with muscle dysmorphia are significantly more likely to use steroids compared to the general population (Cafri et al., 2005). Steroid use can lead to a range of health complications, including cardiovascular issues, liver damage, and psychological effects such as mood swings, irritability, and aggression (Pope et al., 2000). In addition, dependency on these substances can exacerbate the obsession with physical appearance, creating a cycle of dissatisfaction and unhealthy behaviours. Psychological Impact The psychological effects of muscle dysmorphia are profound. Individuals with the condition often suffer from low self-esteem, depression, and anxiety. Their preoccupation with their body image can lead to social withdrawal, as they may avoid situations where they feel their bodies will be scrutinised or judged (Grieve, 2007). Muscle dysmorphia is also associated with perfectionism—the belief that one’s body must be perfect to achieve self-worth or social acceptance. This obsession with achieving a flawless physique can drive individuals to extremes, further impacting their mental and physical health (Pope et al., 2000). Treatment for Muscle Dysmorphia Treating muscle dysmorphia involves a combination of psychological therapy, nutritional counselling, and sometimes medication. The primary goals of treatment are to reduce the obsessive thoughts and behaviours surrounding muscle size, improve self-esteem, and address any underlying mental health conditions, such as depression or anxiety. Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) is commonly used to challenge the distorted beliefs about body image and help individuals develop healthier thought patterns (Murray et al., 2012). CBT can also help patients learn to manage their compulsive exercise habits and adopt more balanced approaches to diet and fitness. Nutritional guidance is crucial in helping individuals with muscle dysmorphia develop a healthier relationship with food and avoid excessive dietary restrictions or reliance on supplements. In some cases, medication such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) may be prescribed to help manage symptoms of depression and anxiety associated with muscle dysmorphia (Pope et al., 2000). Muscle Dysmorphia Vs Body Dysmorphia? Muscle dysmorphia (MD) and body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) are both forms of body image disorders, but they differ in terms of focus and specific symptoms. While both involve an obsessive preoccupation with appearance, the nature of the concern is what sets them apart. Below are the key differences between muscle dysmorphia and body dysmorphia. 1. Primary Focus Muscle Dysmorphia (MD): The primary concern in muscle dysmorphia is an intense preoccupation with muscle size and the belief that one’s body is not sufficiently muscular or lean, even when it may be highly developed. It is particularly prevalent among bodybuilders and weightlifters. Individuals with MD often perceive themselves as smaller or weaker than they are, leading to behaviours focused on gaining muscle mass, such as excessive weightlifting

Written by: Therapy Near Me Editorial Team Clinically reviewed by: qualified members of the Therapy Near Me clinical team Last updated: 27/01/2026 This article is intended as general information only and does not replace personalised medical or mental health advice. Learn more about our Editorial Policy. Sound therapy has been gaining recognition as a powerful tool for improving mental, emotional, and even physical well-being. By utilising the therapeutic qualities of sound, this alternative treatment seeks to balance the body’s energy, relieve stress, and promote overall health. Sound therapy encompasses a range of techniques, from ancient practices such as Tibetan singing bowls to modern approaches like binaural beats. This article explores the principles of sound therapy, its applications, and the scientific research supporting its use. Keywords: Sound therapy criticisms, Scientific evidence for sound therapy, Placebo effect in sound therapy, Sound therapy mechanisms, Effectiveness of binaural beats, Tibetan singing bowls research, Sound therapy placebo effect, Criticism of alternative therapies What is Sound Therapy? Sound therapy refers to the therapeutic application of sound frequencies to the body and mind. The premise of this therapy is that different sound frequencies can affect human consciousness and physiological processes. Sound therapy is based on the principle that everything, including the human body, vibrates at different frequencies, and that dissonance or disharmony in these vibrations can lead to physical or emotional issues. By using specific sound frequencies, sound therapy aims to restore harmony to the body and mind. Some of the key techniques used in sound therapy include: Tibetan Singing Bowls: These bowls produce deep, resonating tones that are believed to align the body’s energy fields, reduce stress, and promote relaxation. Binaural Beats: These are auditory illusions created when two slightly different sound frequencies are played in each ear, resulting in the perception of a third tone. Binaural beats are thought to influence brainwave patterns and promote relaxation, focus, and creativity (Chaieb et al., 2015). Gong Baths: In this practice, participants are immersed in the sound of gongs, which produce a wide range of frequencies that are believed to promote deep relaxation and healing. Tuning Fork Therapy: This technique uses tuning forks to apply specific frequencies to the body, which may stimulate healing and relieve pain (Leeds, 2010). The Science Behind Sound Therapy While sound therapy has roots in ancient healing traditions, modern research is beginning to explore its efficacy in treating various conditions. Studies suggest that sound therapy may have measurable effects on brainwave activity, stress levels, and emotional well-being. Brainwave Modulation One of the most researched areas in sound therapy is its effect on brainwave patterns. The brain naturally operates in different frequency ranges, from the high-frequency beta waves associated with alertness and concentration to the slower theta and delta waves linked with deep relaxation and sleep. Sound therapy, especially through techniques like binaural beats, can induce specific brainwave states by synchronising the brain to external sound frequencies. For instance, listening to sounds in the alpha wave range (8–12 Hz) is associated with a state of relaxation and calm, while theta waves (4–8 Hz) are linked to deep meditation (Chaieb et al., 2015). Research has shown that binaural beats can have a positive impact on mood, anxiety, and focus. A study by Wahbeh et al. (2007) found that binaural beats in the theta frequency range significantly reduced anxiety levels in participants, supporting its potential as a non-invasive intervention for anxiety management. Stress Reduction and Emotional Health Sound therapy has also been widely used to reduce stress and promote emotional well-being. When we are exposed to harmonious sounds, such as those produced by singing bowls or gongs, the body’s autonomic nervous system is influenced, leading to a reduction in the production of stress hormones such as cortisol (Lyzwa & Olszewski, 2020). In turn, this promotes relaxation, decreases anxiety, and enhances overall emotional health. In a study examining the effects of Tibetan singing bowls, participants reported significantly reduced tension, anger, and fatigue, as well as increased mental clarity and relaxation after the session (Goldsby et al., 2017). This suggests that sound therapy may be effective in reducing stress and improving emotional well-being. Physical Health Benefits There is also evidence to suggest that sound therapy may have positive effects on physical health. Tuning fork therapy, for example, is sometimes used to treat chronic pain and improve circulation. The application of sound waves to specific points on the body may help stimulate healing processes, although more clinical trials are needed to confirm these effects (Leeds, 2010). Additionally, sound therapy is being explored as a complementary treatment for conditions such as sleep disorders, chronic pain, and tinnitus. In some cases, low-frequency sound waves have been used to reduce the perception of tinnitus, a condition characterised by persistent ringing in the ears (Hobson et al., 2012). Applications of Sound Therapy Sound therapy is versatile and can be used in various settings, from clinical environments to self-care practices. Some of the main applications include: Stress and Anxiety Management: Sound therapy is commonly used to reduce stress and anxiety, as its relaxing properties help calm the nervous system and promote mental clarity. Sleep Improvement: Many individuals use sound therapy, such as white noise or binaural beats, to improve sleep quality by inducing relaxation and creating a conducive environment for rest (Chaieb et al., 2015). Pain Relief: Therapies involving sound frequencies, such as tuning fork therapy, are sometimes used as complementary treatments for chronic pain and muscle tension. Meditation and Mindfulness: Sound therapy is often integrated into meditation practices, helping individuals achieve deeper states of relaxation and focus. Criticisms of Sound Therapy Sound therapy has garnered significant attention as a holistic treatment for stress reduction, emotional well-being, and even physical ailments. However, while many individuals report benefits from sound therapy practices, there are scientific criticisms that question its efficacy, mechanisms, and general applicability. Below are some of the key scientific criticisms of sound therapy: 1. Lack of Robust Clinical Evidence One of the primary criticisms of sound therapy is the lack of rigorous

Written by: Therapy Near Me Editorial Team Clinically reviewed by: qualified members of the Therapy Near Me clinical team Last updated: 01/07/2025 This article is intended as general information only and does not replace personalised medical or mental health advice. Learn more about our Editorial Policy. The harrowing case of Gisèle Pelicot, a French woman who was repeatedly raped by dozens of men over nearly a decade while drugged by her husband, has sparked widespread outrage and ignited important conversations about sexual violence and accountability in France. This case highlights the extent of gender-based violence and the need for stronger social, legal, and cultural reforms to protect victims and prosecute offenders. Keywords: Gisele Pelicot case, French mass rape victim, Mass rape trauma, Psychological impact of mass rape, Gisele Pelicot legal battle, Survivors of mass sexual violence, Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in rape survivors, Gisele Pelicot mental health recovery The Details of the Case The crimes against Gisèle Pelicot came to light in November 2020, when authorities in southeastern France began investigating her husband, Dominique Pelicot, after he was caught taking illicit photos of women at a local supermarket. Further investigations revealed that Dominique had been drugging his wife over the course of almost ten years, during which he allowed at least 72 men to rape her while she was unconscious​. Of the 72 identified men, 50 are currently on trial, facing charges of sexual assault and rape, some of whom are well-known professionals, including a fireman, a nurse, and a journalist. Courage in the Face of Trauma Despite the immense psychological trauma Gisèle has endured, she made the courageous decision to have the trial held publicly rather than privately. This decision was made to raise awareness about the issue of drug-induced sexual assault and to encourage other victims, who may never know or speak out about their own victimisation, to come forward​. Gisèle’s bravery in taking a public stand has galvanised support from women’s rights groups across France, who have rallied around her as a symbol of the ongoing fight against gender-based violence. “I speak for all women who are drugged and unaware, on behalf of those who may never know,” Gisèle stated in court, drawing attention to the many hidden cases of sexual assault that go unreported, especially those involving incapacitated victims​. The Legal and Social Ramifications The trial of Dominique Pelicot and the 50 other accused men is not only significant for its scale but also for the broader national debate it has sparked about sexual violence in France. In recent years, the country has been grappling with its handling of sexual assault cases, especially following the resurgence of the #MeToo movement, which has gained momentum after high-profile French figures, such as actor and director Judith Godrèche, spoke out about their own experiences with sexual abuse​. While France has made strides in addressing sexual misconduct, critics argue that its cultural views on sexual freedom have sometimes made it more difficult for victims of sexual violence to be taken seriously. The Pelicot case has drawn attention to these deep-seated issues, prompting calls for stronger laws, greater victim protection, and more significant penalties for perpetrators of sexual violence. Broader Implications and Calls for Reform This case has ignited discussions about consent, victim protection, and the effectiveness of the French legal system in addressing sexual crimes. Women’s rights advocates have argued that legal reforms must go further in addressing not only the prosecution of offenders but also the social and psychological support systems available for victims of gender-based violence. The Psychological Impact of Sexual Violence Survivors of drug-facilitated sexual assault like Gisèle often face severe psychological consequences, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety, depression, and dissociative disorders. Research has shown that the trauma of being violated while unconscious can lead to feelings of helplessness and confusion, as victims may struggle to remember or fully understand what happened to them (Wilson et al., 2015). In cases like Gisèle’s, where the abuse was prolonged and involved multiple perpetrators, the psychological damage can be compounded. Studies have shown that survivors of mass rape, such as those in conflict zones or cases involving multiple assailants, are particularly vulnerable to long-term mental health issues. The World Health Organization has reported that survivors of such assaults are more likely to suffer from chronic PTSD and depression, and they often require long-term psychological care and support (WHO, 2019). Long Term Psychological Effects The long-term psychological impacts of mass rape are profound and far-reaching, affecting survivors on emotional, cognitive, and social levels. These impacts can persist for years, even decades, and often require comprehensive, long-term treatment to manage. Some of the most common and severe psychological effects include: 1. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Survivors of mass rape often develop PTSD, characterised by symptoms such as intrusive memories, nightmares, hypervigilance, and emotional numbing. The repeated and violent nature of mass rape can exacerbate PTSD, making it particularly severe and difficult to treat (Herman, 1997). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), survivors of mass sexual violence are at significantly increased risk of PTSD, which can impair their ability to function in daily life (WHO, 2019). 2. Depression Chronic depression is common among survivors of mass rape, with many individuals experiencing persistent feelings of hopelessness, despair, and worthlessness. Depression in these survivors can be severe, often accompanied by suicidal ideation and, in some cases, suicide attempts (Campbell et al., 2009). The shame and stigma associated with rape, particularly in societies where sexual violence carries significant social penalties, can worsen depressive symptoms and contribute to social withdrawal and isolation. 3. Anxiety and Panic Disorders Survivors frequently experience anxiety and panic disorders, manifesting as extreme fear, hyperarousal, and panic attacks. Many survivors live in constant fear of re-victimisation, especially in conflict zones where sexual violence is widespread and ongoing. This heightened state of fear can lead to avoidant behaviour, where survivors withdraw from social and public settings to feel safe (Amone-P’Olak, 2007). 4. Sexual Dysfunction Mass rape survivors often suffer from long-term